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POSTnote 394 Invasive Tree Pests and Diseases (
PDF 271 KB)
The risk to UK trees from invasive diseases and pests is growing with the expansion of international trade and travel and transport of live trees and timber products, along with environmental changes. This POSTnote summarises the difficulties in regulating the threat of imported pests and diseases, and for managing them if they become established in the UK.
POSTnote 388 Marine Planning ( PDF 226 KB)
The UK’s marine resources have substantial economic, environmental and social value. However, increasing demand has led to concerns over their degradation. The Marine and Coastal Access Act (2009) set out the mechanism for marine planning in UK waters and aims to help tackle these concerns. It combines the management of activities and conservation of the marine environment. This POSTnote describes the marine planning process and considers the challenges it will face.
POSTnote 387 Anaerobic Digestion ( PDF 308 KB)
Anaerobic digestion (AD) can divert waste from landfill and produce biogas, a source of renewable energy, and “digestate”, a fertiliser. This POSTnote examines the potential for AD in the UK, and the main challenges connected with its development.
POSTnote 386 GM Crops and Food Security ( PDF 134 KB)
Four page POSTnote, September 2011
The rising global population requires agriculture to increase productivity at a time when land and water shortages and climate change are putting pressure on food production. This POSTnote examines the potential contribution that genetic modification of crops might bring to increasing food production in Europe, in a global context.
POSTnote 385 Water in Production and Products ( PDF 227 KB)
Four page POSTnote, August 2011
The water used for production, known as “virtual” water, constitutes 95% of human water use. As pressure on the world’s water supply rises, recognition of the amount of water used within each step of production could play an important role in managing water use. This POSTnote examines how virtual water use is calculated and its application within the global economy.
Please could you assist us by completing a short questionnaire about the POSTnote, accessible by clicking on this link, which will provide us with valuable feedback for future publications.
POSTnote 384 Biofuels from Algae ( PDF 359 KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2011
Algae, including seaweed, are a potential source of renewable fuel, food and chemicals. This POSTnote examines the technical, economic and environmental issues around algal biofuels and their relevance to UK and EU policy targets.
Please could you assist us by completing a short questionnaire about the POSTnote, accessible by clicking on this link, which will provide us with valuable feedback for future publications.
POSTnote 383 Carbon Footprint of Electricity Generation ( PDF 407 KB)
Four page POSTnote and separate list of references ( PDF 160 KB), June 2011
In 2006, POSTnote 268 outlined the “carbon footprints” of a variety of electricity generation technologies. Footprint data were scarce at that time, particularly peer-reviewed estimates. This POSTnote provides an updated overview of the evidence base in 2011, including estimates from more than 30 peer-reviewed studies.
Please could you assist us by completing a short questionnaire about the POSTnote, accessible by clicking on this link, which will provide us with valuable feedback for future publications.
POSTnote 380 - Landscapes of the Future ( PDF 136 KB)
Fourpage POSTnote, June 2011
Land underpins the whole economy, through provision of food and other goods and its use for housing, business, transport, energy, tourism and recreation. The UK faces major challenges addressing projected population increases, climate change and economic growth with limited land and natural resources. This POSTnote examines how policy structures, including planning reforms, might deliver land use systems that meet these challenges.
POSTnote 379 - Evidence Based Conservation ( PDF 188 KB)
Fourpage POSTnote, June 2011
Conservation of the natural environment is necessary to protect and enhance the UK’s valuable natural resources. The use of scientific evidence to support conservation decisions can increase potential impacts and ensure cost-effectiveness. This POSTnote summarises the benefits of, and issues surrounding, an evidence-based approach to conservation management.
POSTnote 378 - Ecosystem Service Valuation ( PDF 234 KB)
Fourpage POSTnote, May 2011
Ecosystems in the UK are managed to provide desired levels of specific benefits, such as the provision of food and fibre, to meet human needs. However, other benefits from ecosystems important to human wellbeing do not have a market value. The UK National Ecosystem Assessment has refined methods for placing monetary values on many services provided by the natural environment. It will also demonstrate convincingly that relying on how present markets handle such services will not deliver the best outcomes for society. This POSTnote summarises methodologies for determining reliable values for changes in natural resources and ecosystem services and the policy implications of such valuations.
POSTnote 377 - The Ecosystem Approach ( PDF 255 KB)
Fourpage POSTnote, May 2011
The ecosystem approach makes explicit the link between the status of natural resource systems and ecosystem services that support human well-being. It seeks to maintain the integrity and functioning of ecosystems as a whole to avoid rapid undesirable ecological change. It also recognises that the impacts of human activities are a matter of social choice, and are as integral to ecosystem interactions as ecosystems are to human activities.
POSTnote 376 - Natural Capital Accounting ( PDF 211 KB)
Fourpage POSTnote, May 2011
Renewable natural resources are being impacted by a range of pressures, such as biodiversity loss and climate change. A minimum level of natural resources is required to maintain the capacity of ecosystems to sustain human well-being at acceptable levels. If governments do not monitor effectively the use or degradation of natural resource systems in national account frameworks (‘environmental accounting’), the risks of incurring costs to future economic productivity are not taken into account, nor are impacts on human wellbeing.
POSTnote 374 - Unconventional Gas ( PDF 407 KB)
Fourpage POSTnote, April 2011
Unconventional sources of gas have recently gained much attention due to the significant contribution they are making to US gas production. This POSTnote examines the potential for unconventional gas exploitation in the UK, the regulatory regimes covering such activity, and the issues surrounding the extraction and use of the gas.
POSTnote 373 - Water Adaptation in Africa ( PDF 243 KB)
Fourpage POSTnote, April 2011
Africa is one of the world’s most vulnerable regions to climate change. Potential impacts of climate change on the continent are multiple but are mostly connected through the medium of water. Historically, the continent has unpredictable rainfall and climate patterns which are likely to be exacerbated by future climate change. This briefing discusses adapting water resource management to climate change.
POSTnote 372 - Future Electricity Networks ( PDF 427 KB)
Fourpage POSTnote, February 2011
Ongoing reforms of regulation and the electricity market aim to transform the electricity system and its operation. This will require many billions of pounds of investment in the UK’s electricity networks to:
- renew aging network;
- make networks ‘smarter’, particularly at the regional level;
- build and reinforce network both on land and offshore.
This note examines the possibilities and challenges for network development in the UK.
POSTnote 370 - Environmental Limits ( PDF 258 KB)
Fourpage POSTnote, January 2011
Full POST Report 370 ( PDF 5.51 MB)
One hundred and fifty-nine page report, March 2011
Natural resources such as land, water, soil, plants and animals should be used and managed within boundaries that allow the resource to renew itself. Otherwise, well-being, for present and future generations, will be impacted. This POSTnote summarises a longer POST report on environmental limits, which sets out the challenges to achieving this aim, whilst considering the complex trade-offs between social, economic and environmental objectives. The full report will be made available on this website shortly.
POSTnote 369 - Biodiversity Offsetting ( PDF 231 KB)
Fourpage POSTnote, January 2011
Given growing recognition of the importance of biodiversity, all sectors are looking for ways to mitigate the environmental costs of development activity. Biodiversity offsetting refers to market-based schemes designed to compensate for losses of biodiversity due to development projects. This POSTnote summarises biodiversity offsetting and examines opportunities and risks of offsets within a UK context.
363 – Sea Level Rise ( PDF 101 KB)
Four Page POSTnote, September 2010
Global mean sea levels are projected to increase over the next century. Around the UK sea level rise will exacerbate problems of coastal flooding and erosion. This POSTnote summarizes the causes of sea level rise, and the uncertainties in and the consequences for UK climate change adaptation.
360 - Genetically Modified Insects ( PDF 315 KB)
Four page POSTnote, June 2010
Insects are essential to global ecology and show remarkably varied adaptations to their environment. They are also responsible for economic and social harm worldwide through the transmission of disease to humans and animals, and damage to crops. Their genetic modification has been proposed as a new way of controlling insect pests. However, regulatory guidelines governing the use of such technology have not yet been fully developed.
358 - Biochar ( PDF 104 KB)
Four page POSTnote, June 2010
Biochar is carbon rich material made by heating organic matter in low oxygen conditions. It may have the potential to reduce levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2), thus helping the UK to meet its greenhouse gas emissions reductions targets. Furthermore, applying biochar to agricultural land could improve soil fertility, although research is far from definitive as results are variable. This POSTnote examines the current status of research into the production and use of biochar, the feasibility of using it to combat climate change, and any unintended consequences that may result.
357 - EU Fisheries Management ( PDF 472 KB)
Four page POSTnote, May 2010
The existing Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) has not delivered sustainable fisheries for Europe. In addition to lost fisheries productivity, there have been unwanted impacts on the marine environment and economically inefficient fisheries that are more vulnerable to financial shocks. The recent European Commission (EC) Green Paper on the reform of the CFP reconfirms the need to adopt an ecosystem approach to ensure the CFP supports the Marine Strategy Framework Directive. This POSTnote describes challenges to ecosystem-based fisheries management and how these might be tackled.
354 - Global Carbon Trading ( PDF 120 KB)
Four page POSTnote, March 2010
The EU has a target of reducing overall greenhouse gas emissions to at least 20% below 1990 levels by 2020. To assist in achieving this legally binding goal and delivering emissions reductions at reduced economic cost, the EU Emission Trading System started in 2005, creating mandatory carbon trading within the EU. This POSTnote looks at the EU trading system's mechanisms, comparing it with operational and proposed emissions trading systems elsewhere. Prospects of linking these to form an international system, and the alternatives, are also discussed.
353 - Renewable Heating ( PDF 125 KB)
Four page POSTnote, March 2010
Heating accounts for almost 50% of UK energy consumption and associated carbon dioxide emissions. Renewable heating technologies could therefore make a significant contribution towards carbon reduction and renewable energy targets. This POSTnote examines the available resources and technologies for supplying renewable heating and cooling in the UK and the policy options that could support their take up. This briefing does not consider insulation or changes in consumer behaviour that can affect the overall demand for heat.
348 - Insect Pollination ( PDF 135 KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 2010
Many plants, including crops, depend on insects to transfer pollen between flowers. Maintaining enough insect pollinators is therefore vital for biodiversity and a diverse food supply. Declines in pollinators, particularly in Europe and the USA, have provoked claims of a global pollination crisis. This POSTnote examines the risks of pollinator decline for the UK and explores strategies to provide stable pollination services into the future.
347 - Climate Change: Engagement and Behaviour ( PDF 136 KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 2010
Public engagement plays an important role in UK climate policy, and is often used to promote lower carbon lifestyles or build support for policies. It can also involve the public in the design and implementation of policy on climate change. This note provides an overview of UK attitudes and behaviour relating to climate change. It outlines current engagement approaches and lessons for future policy.
344 - Deforestation ( PDF 153 KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2009
International attention is focussed on ways to reduce deforestation, prompted by concerns over greenhouse gas emissions and biodiversity loss. However the underlying causes of deforestation are rooted in current economic and development paradigms. This POSTnote looks at the reasons why deforestation occurs and the impact it has on the environment, as well as examining policies to reduce it.
343 - Ocean acidification ( PDF 122 KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2009
The increasing amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere is acidifying the oceans. The resulting changes to ecosystems and marine biodiversity may have negative impacts on fisheries and food security and reduce the coastal protection provided by coral reefs. This POSTnote outlines the science behind ocean acidification and summarises the threats to the marine environment. A global reduction of carbon emissions is the only certain way to minimise these risks.
342 - Coastal management ( PDF 121 KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2009
Predicted sea level rise and higher storm surges will increase the risk of coastal erosion and flooding. In response to this challenge, flood and coastal erosion risk management is undergoing direction and policy change. This POSTnote examines past and present coastal management policy and the main issues arising for the future English coastline.
341 - Biodiversity and Climate Change ( PDF 144 KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2009
The effects of climate change on biodiversity are already evident in the UK, and with continued climate change, are expected to increase. This POSTnote explores the observed and future impacts of climate change on biodiversity. It also examines the relationship between biodiversity and adaptation to a changing climate.
336 - Crop Protection ( PDF 126 KB)
Four page POSTnote, June 2009
The pesticide approvals process in Europe is changing. Consequently, a number of compounds used to protect European crops from weeds, pests and disease may no longer be available. Proponents believe this will benefit health and the environment; others fear significant decreases in crop yield and quality. This POSTnote explores the potential implications for UK agriculture and horticulture and examines other crop protection strategies available that complement or compensate for pesticides.
335 - CO 2 Capture, Transport and Storage ( PDF 112 KB)
Four page POSTnote, June 2009
Carbon capture and storage (CCS) involves capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) emitted from large sources such as fossil fuel power stations, transporting it, and then storing it in secure geological formations deep underground. These formations include depleted oil and gas fields, and natural underground reservoirs. This POSTnote details the main CCS technologies and considers their safety and legal issues. This is followed by an overview of global CCS projects as well as a discussion of UK and EU policy.
334 - Arctic Changes ( PDF 150 KB)
Four page POSTnote, June 2009
The Arctic is warming faster than lower latitudes. This high north region is important for the UK's future environmental security (climate), energy security and strategic interests. This POSTnote summarises the environmental change already occurring in the Arctic and its potential impact on the global climate, future commercial activities and Arctic governance.
327 - Geo-engineering Research ( PDF 173 KB)
Four page POSTnote, March 2009
There is evidence that efforts to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases may be insufficient to avert unacceptable levels of climate change; global emission levels are currently higher than even the highest scenario produced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2001). Geo-engineering seeks to use global scale engineering to offset the effects of greenhouse gas emissions. This POSTnote summarises the arguments relating to research funding for geoengineering.
325 - Wild Deer ( PDF 119 KB)
Four page POSTnote, February 2009
Wild deer populations are increasing in number and geographic range in the UK. Deer are a valuable natural resource if managed sustainably, but when occurring at excessive densities, they can have negative effects on biodiversity, the rural economy, human health and safety, and animal welfare. This POSTnote examines the current status of wild deer in the UK, their ecological, economic and social impacts and legislation on their management.
324 - Marine Renewables ( PDF 138 KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 2009
Britain has an EU mandated target to meet 15% of its energy requirements from renewable sources by 2020. The UK has the largest wave and tidal resources in Europe, so marine renewables are a candidate for contributing to this target. Around 15-20% of the UK's electricity could potentially be produced from marine renewable sources, but the technology is not mature. This POSTnote considers the technologies available and the environmental, economic and technological challenges involved in their deployment.
320 - River Basin Management Plans ( PDF 121 KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2008
The EU Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) seeks to protect, improve and maintain the environmental condition of surface and ground waters. Under the directive, all inland, estuarial and coastal waters must aim to achieve "good ecological status" by 2015. More than 80% of water bodies in England and Wales currently fail to reach this status. This POSTnote outlines some of the challenges in implementing River Basin Management Plans (RBMPs) in the UK to meet Water Framework Directive (WFD) objectives.
318 - The Transition to a Low Carbon Economy ( PDF 135 KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2008
Fundamental changes to the UK economy will be required to meet the greenhouse gas emission targets of the Climate Change Act (2008). This POSTnote examines UK emission trends since 1990 and considers how the UK might achieve a technological and behavioural transition to meet the targets.
315 - Renewable energy in a changing climate ( PDF 118 KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2008
Concerns over climate change (see POSTnote 295) have led to an increasing focus on the renewable energy sector. The EU has agreed a binding target of 20% of renewable energy by 2020, with a proposed UK target of 15% of energy from renewable sources. This POSTnote looks at UK options for meeting this target, and discusses how climate change could affect both the UK capacity to produce renewable energy and demand for energy in general.
312 - Biodiversity indicators ( PDF 122 KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2008
The UK is committed to a demanding European target to halt biodiversity loss and a less stringent global target to reduce the rate of biodiversity loss by 2010. Biodiversity indicators measure progress towards these targets. This POSTnote explains the different suites of indicators that will be used and looks at issues surrounding them.
310 - Marine conservation zones ( PDF 128 KB)
Four page POSTnote, June 2008
The proposed Draft UK Marine Bill aims to combine legislation on activities and conservation in the marine environment into a single framework. This includes the designation of a network of Marine Conservation Zones (MCZs) in UK waters, a form of marine protected area (MPA). MPAs are described as any area of intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying water and associated flora or fauna, historical or cultural features, which are protected by legal or other effective means. This POSTnote examines the possibility of using a MCZ network to manage the impacts of human activities on the marine environment.
307 -Wildlife diseases ( PDF 119 KB)
Four page POSTnote, April 2008
Wildlife diseases can have negative consequences for biodiversity, human and livestock health, animal welfare and the economy. At present UK wildlife disease surveillance is poorly coordinated. The lack of a cohesive approach stems from a division of responsibility and a dominant focus on livestock and human health. This POSTnote examines the impacts of wildlife diseases, the current status of surveillance in the UK and the options to strengthen policies.
306 - Electricity storage ( PDF 120 KB)
Four page POSTnote, April 2008
Storing electricity on a large scale enables power generated when demand is low to be stored for release at peak demand periods. Storage may become more important because renewable energy sources such as wind and solar do not produce constant levels of power. This POSTnote examines existing and proposed methods for large scale electricity storage, examines the technical challenges and discusses the economics of storage relative to other methods of providing electricity reserves.
303 - Invasive non-native species ( PDF 132 KB)
Four page POSTnote, April 2008
Non-native invasive species are a significant threat to biodiversity and their ecological impacts are difficult to reverse. They also affect economic interests particularly within agriculture, horticulture and forestry. This POSTnote explores the impacts of invasive non-native species and discusses the forthcoming Great British strategy on invasive non-native species.
301 - Smart metering of electricity and gas ( PDF 132 KB)
Four page POSTnote, February 2008
Smart metering enables accurate measuring of energy usage and the provision of improved information to consumers, suppliers and the market. The 2007 White Paper on Energy identified smart metering as a possible energy saving measure. It also outlined the expectation that smart meters will be installed in all of the UK's 25 million homes over the next ten years. This POSTnote examines the potential benefits, costs and policy considerations involved.
300 - Ecological networks ( PDF 141 KB)
Four page POSTnote, February 2008
Ecological networks are intended to maintain environmental processes and to help to conserve biodiversity where remnants of semi-natural habitat have become fragmented and isolated. This POSTnote considers the possible conservation benefits of ecological network implementation in the UK.
295 - Climate change science ( PDF 152 KB)
Four page POSTnote, November 2007
In February 2007 the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded that most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely to result from the observed increase in human caused greenhouse gases. This POSTnote examines the uncertainties of climate science, and the attribution of recent climate change.
294 - Public Opinions on Electricity Options ( PDF 154 KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2007
The 2007 Energy White Paper states that the UK needs an extra 40 to 45% of electricity generating capacity over the next 20 years. However, there is increasing debate about the proposed development of new power plants in the UK. Given recent public interest in new technologies it is important to understand this debate not just in a technological framework, but also within its social context. This POSTnote considers the social acceptability of different forms of electricity generation (mainly measured through opinion polls). Please click on the link below for an appendix which details the opinion polls and studies included in the analysis. Appendix to POSTnote 294 - Opinion Polls and Studies ( PDF 37 KB)
293-Transport biofuels ( PDF 116 KB)
Four page POSTnote, August 2007
Transport accounts for 25% of the UK's carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Low carbon fuels such as biofuels are expected to play a part in reducing CO2 emissions from the transport sector. Biofuels are produced from biomass (plant or animal material). They are renewable and have typically lower lifecycle CO2 emissions than petrol or diesel. 'Second generation' biofuels may offer even lower CO2 emissions, but these are not yet commercially available. Although biofuels can provide carbon savings, some groups are concerned about the environmental and socio-economic impacts of biofuel feedstocks, especially in developing countries. This POSTnote examines the issues relating to current and future transport biofuels.
290-Voluntary carbon offsets ( PDF 118 KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2007
Carbon offsetting involves calculating a person or entity's greenhouse gas emissions and then purchasing 'credits' from emission reduction projects that have prevented or removed the emission of an equivalent amount of greenhouse gas elsewhere. The voluntary carbon offset market is growing at a rapid rate. However, there is considerable debate over both the merit of carbon offsets themselves, and the different types available. This POSTnote reviews the arguments over the availability of offset programmes, describes the carbon market and highlights some of the defining characteristics of a carbon offset.
289-Urban Flooding ( PDF 117 KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2007
Urban flooding due to drainage systems being overwhelmed by rainfall is estimated to cost £270 million a year in England and Wales; 80,000 homes are at risk. Its impacts are expected to increase if no policy changes are made. This POSTnote sets out the current approaches to managing urban drainage and examines proposals for improving them.
288-New industries in the deep sea ( PDF 141 KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2007
More than 70% of the Earth is covered by the oceans, which have an average depth of four kilometres. In the deep sea there is no light, low temperatures and crushing pressure, yet a wide variety of creatures are adapted to these extreme conditions. New technologies give unprecedented access to deep waters, revealing a wealth of new habitats and organisms, and also presenting opportunities for exploiting new resources. This POSTnote examines the specific cases of deep- seabed mineral extraction, bioprospecting and CO2 storage. It highlights the difficulties in promoting development of economic opportunities while protecting the deep sea environment.
282-Energy and sewage ( PDF 682 KB)
Four page POSTnote, April 2007
Water and energy management are important and interrelated issues. Sewage treatment, that is, the physical, chemical and biological processes used to clean industrial and domestic wastewater, has improved significantly over the past 20 years, with approximately 75% of UK rivers now of good biological and chemical quality. However, the energy required to treat sewage to this standard is high; the water industry is the fourth most energy intensive sector in the UK. Further tightening of water quality standards suggest energy costs will increase. This POSTnote evaluates options for sewage treatment in terms of energy conservation and renewable energy generation.
281-Ecosystem services ( PDF 122 KB)
Four page POSTnote, March 2007
The natural environment provides people with goods and services that are fundamental to human wellbeing. Damage to the environment is seriously degrading these services and this will have economic implications. This POSTnote outlines what ecosystem services are, and how provisions for maintaining them in the UK could be incorporated into policy frameworks.
280-Electricity in the UK ( PDF 148 KB)
Four page POSTnote, February 2007
Electricity generation accounts for around 30% of UK carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. In the next decade, many coal and nuclear plants will close, leaving the UK increasingly dependent on imported gas. Government sets out two priorities in its Energy Review : security of energy supply and emissions reductions. This POSTnote discusses challenges facing electricity networks in the light of these priorities, such as connecting renewable generators in remote areas, and incorporating small-scale generation. It discusses barriers to progress, and policy options such as planning reform and incentives.
275-UK trees and forests ( PDF 122 KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 2007
Trees and forests can provide a range of benefits that are often complementary. Some of these benefits derive from green space in general, but forests may also offer unique opportunities. The social and environmental value of woodland and forest in Great Britain has been estimated to be worth up to àÆâ£1 billion a year. This POSTnote explores the issues surrounding the sustainable management of existing and new forest in the UK.
274-Food security in developing countries ( PDF 128 KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2006
Food security and insecurity are terms used to describe whether or not people have access to sufficient quality and quantity of food. They are affected by factors such as poverty, health, food production, political stability, infrastructure, access to markets, and natural hazards. Improved food security is important for global reduction of hunger and poverty, and for economic development. One aim of the Millennium Development Goals is to reduce by half the proportion of people suffering from hunger by 2015. Currently, 820 million people are affected by hunger in developing countries and numbers are not falling quickly enough to achieve the goal, particularly in Africa and Southern Asia. This POSTnote examines food security in the developing world and options available for its progress, including increasing access to food and higher agricultural production.
272 -Ambient air quality ( PDF 125 KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2006
Ambient air quality, the condition of the air in the outdoor environment, directly affects the health of humans and ecosystems. National and European regulation has delivered improvements in UK air quality (see POSTnote number 188). Air pollution from major sources such as transport, power generation and industry, are now heavily regulated and declining. However, current air pollution levels continue to cause adverse impacts on human health and the environment, as summarised by this POSTnote.
269 -Adapting to climate change in developing countries ( PDF 123 KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2006
Climate change poses a serious threat to development and poverty reduction in the poorest and most vulnerable regions of the world. Minimising the impacts of climate change requires adaptation. In 2005, under the UK's presidency, the G8 Plan of Action1 included an agreement to assist developing countries adapt to climate change. This POSTnote examines how adaptation to climate change is being approached in developing countries. It will also address the role of the international community and how the UK government is helping developing countries to build their capacity to adapt to climate change and assisting in adaptation.
268 -Carbon footprint of electricity generation ( PDF 163 KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2006
All electricity generation systems have a 'carbon footprint', that is, at some points during their construction and operation carbon dioxide (CO2) is emitted. There is some debate about how large these footprints are, especially for 'low carbon' technologies such as wind and nuclear. This POSTnote compares the life cycle CO2 emissions of different electricity generation systems currently used in the UK, including fossil-fuelled and 'low carbon'.
Errata: Figure 3, Gas power stations with (post-combustion) carbon capture and storage (CCS) are expected to have a carbon 'footprint' of 63 gCO2/kWh
267 -Adapting to climate change in the UK ( PDF 124 KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2006
Scientists believe that a certain amount of climate change is inevitable over the next few decades, irrespective of future carbon emissions. The Government and businesses are beginning to assess what the impacts might be for the UK and to develop strategies and tools for dealing with them. This POSTnote outlines some of the impacts climate change may have and discusses remaining areas of uncertainty and debate.
265 -UK Soil degradation ( PDF 165 KB)
Four page POSTnote, June 2006
Soil degradation involves both the physical loss (erosion) and the reduction in quality of topsoil associated with nutrient decline and contamination. It affects soil quality for agriculture and has implications for the urban environment, pollution and flooding. Currently, 2.2 million tonnes of topsoil is eroded annually in the UK and over 17% of arable land shows signs of erosion. This POSTnote examines the nature and extent of soil degradation in the UK and the challenges and opportunities for soils in a changing climate. These include the potential for using degraded and polluted soils in the built environment for brownfield redevelopment as well as the possibility of using soils to mitigate carbon emissions.
259- Balancing Water Supply and the Environment ( PDF 589 KB)
Four page POSTnote, February 2006
Water is vital for all living things. Rivers, lakes and wetlands support a variety of wildlife and habitats. However, the environmental need for water must be balanced against human water use. In most areas of England and Wales , the balance between users and the environment is sustainable but, in some locations, water-based ecosystems are under threat. European Directives aimed at protecting the water environment will have impacts on how human water needs are met. This POSTnote examines the potential risks and opportunities for the provision of public water supply as the Directives are implemented in England and Wales. It precedes the House of Lords Science and Technology Select Committee report on Water Management.
256 - Århus convention ( PDF 119 KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 2006
There is currently a perceived lack of trust between people and their governments, especially where environmental matters are concerned. The Århus Convention is seen as an important tool for improving this situation. It is founded on the belief that citizens' involvement can strengthen democracy and environmental protection. Kofi Annan described it as "the most ambitious venture in the area of environmental democracy so far undertaken under the auspices of the United Nations". Furthermore, it is the first Convention that aims to make these rights for enhanced democracy enforceable by the courts. This POSTnote looks at the progress of introducing the rhus principles into national legislation, the successes achieved and the difficulties encountered.
255 - Low carbon private vehicles ( PDF 272 KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 2006
Private vehicle use is increasing. It now accounts for 86% of miles travelled in the UK, compared with just 27% in 1952. Cleaner fuels and exhaust technologies such as catalytic converters have reduced emissions of some pollutants from vehicles. However, carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions continue to rise, with a projected increase of 10% between 2000 and 2010. This POSTnote examines technologies as well as current government initiatives aimed at reducing CO2 emissions from private vehicles.
254 - Farmland Wildlife ( PDF 128 KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2005
Farmland covers approximately three quarters of the United Kingdom and has historically provided a wide range of habitats for wildlife. Many British species are adapted to living in a farmed landscape, so efforts to conserve wildlife are often concentrated within managed ecosystems. Much of the wildlife that inhabits farmland has declined over recent decades. The reform of the EU Common Agricultural Policy has presented an opportunity for farmers to be rewarded for protecting wildlife. This POSTnote examines the current status of wildlife on farms. It reviews the options available to farmers for wildlife conservation and explores the implications of future changes to the countryside.
253 - Cleaner Coal ( PDF 258 KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2005
Climate change is high on the political agenda, gas and oil prices are increasingly volatile and concerns about nuclear power generation continue. Could 'cleaner coal' offer the perfect energy solution? Cleaner coal technologies (particularly those that reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions) are at various stages of development. Advocates believe they hold the key to a secure and low carbon electricity mix. Critics are concerned that core technologies have not been fully demonstrated and that the barriers to implementation have been underestimated. This POSTnote examines the most prominent technologies and the issues surrounding their use.
252 - Recycling Household Waste ( PDF 133 KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2005
About 29 million tonnes of municipal waste, 87% of which was household waste, was produced in England in 2003/04. Most waste ends up in landfill sites; only 19% of household waste is currently recycled or composted. Recycling is widely assumed to be environmentally beneficial, although the collection, sorting and processing of materials gives rise to some environmental impacts and energy use. This POSTnote summarises the environmental impacts of recycling household waste, and examines some of the reasons why recycling rates are still relatively low.
251 - Sustaining Fisheries ( PDF 133 KB)
Four page POSTnote, November 2005
The fishing industry is an important economic and social activity in parts of the UK; some remote communities are highly dependent upon it. Worldwide, demand for fish is rising but many fish stocks are dwindling with several important stocks threatened in the European Union (EU). A moratorium on fishing of a British favourite, the cod, has been recommended by government scientists since 2001. Several recent inquiries into the sustainability of the fishing industry have concluded that a change in management is requi-red. This briefing outlines the main issues and recent policy developments, with a focus on whitefish stocks.
249 - Household Energy Efficiency ( PDF 263 KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2005
Household energy use accounts for more than a quarter of all energy used in the UK, but the typical household wastes around a third of that energy each year. The Government's 2003 Energy White Paper placed energy efficiency centre stage for achieving its energy targets. It identified potential carbon savings amounting to ~20 million tonnes a year (Mt/yr) across the economy over the next 15 years1, with 5 Mt/yr coming from the household sector by 2010. But critics question whether current policies will deliver these predicted savings. This POSTnote examines these concerns and explores the barriers to improving household energy efficiency.
245-Rapid Climate Change ( PDF 148 KB)
Four page POSTnote, June 2005
Climate change is a widely debated issue and a key focus of the EU and G8 this year. Policy responses so far have focused on steady changes in climate. Now growing evidence suggests that increases in global temperatures may lead to more rapid and irreversible shifts in the climate system. These could produce large changes in global weather patterns in only a few decades. The likelihood of such an event occurring this century is thought to be low, but the potential impacts are too high to ignore. While the uncertainties remain high, some evidence suggests that if emissions growth continues unabated, abrupt changes could be seen by the middle of this century. This POSTnote summarises current knowledge of rapid climate change and reviews possible policy options.
239- Early warnings for natural disasters ( PDF 126 KB)
Four page POSTnote, June 2005
Sudden natural disasters, such as hurricanes, floods, and earthquakes, can strike in minutes. Although they cannot be prevented, some can be forecast. Their effects can be reduced if communities are warned and prepared. Although the UK does experience natural disasters, this note addresses its role in Early Warnings (EWs) in developing countries, where sophisticated EW systems may be difficult to implement and maintain . The UK Department for International Development (DFID) and others, emphasise that EWs should be integrated in a wider disaster risk reduction strategy, rather than be a 'stand alone' solution.
238- Carbon capture and storage (CCS) ( PDF 129 KB)
Four page POSTnote, March 2005
As part of the government's global strategy to address climate change, the 2003 Energy White Paper sets the target of a 60% reduction in UK emissions of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) by 2050, to about 240Mt (million tonnes) per year from 550Mt in 2000. Increased energy efficiency and use of renewable energy are the key mechanisms proposed to achieve this. However the White Paper suggests the continuing importance of fossil fuels to ensure security of electricity supplies. Using fossil fuels in a low-carbon economy requires their CO2 emissions be reduced. This POSTnote discusses the potential of carbon capture and storage (CCS), a method of carbon sequestration, to reduce UK and global emissions, and also the costs, environmental impacts and public perceptions of CCS.
NOTE: POSTnote 335 - CO2 Capture, Transport and Storage ( PDF 112 KB) - provides an update to this briefing.
237- Managing the UK plutonium stockpile ( PDF 121 KB)
Four page POSTnote, February 2005
As a result of both civilian and military activities in the UK, a stockpile of plutonium has accumulated, for which there is currently no long term management strategy. Proposed options include treating it as a waste or using it in nuclear fuel to generate electricity. Discussions have recently been initiated by the Committee on Radioactive Waste Management (CoRWM) on the implications of managing plutonium as waste; currently none is classified as waste. This note provides background information on the UK's plutonium stockpile and examines safety and proliferation issues. It outlines why a management strategy is required and summarises commentary on long-term options.
236-The bushmeat trade ( PDF 124 KB)
Four page POSTnote, February 2005
There is increasing concern about the commercial trade in 'bushmeat' (the meat of wild animals) originating in West and Central Africa. Unsustainable levels of bushmeat hunting could threaten both wildlife populations and the people who depend on bushmeat for food or income. Of particular relevance to the UK are the implications of the trade for human and animal health through possible disease transmission. This briefing summarises the causes and effects of the bushmeat trade, UK policy and remaining challenges.
234- Marine nature conservation ( PDF 114 KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2004
Nearly half of the UK's species are found in its seas. Despite this, it is widely accepted that protection of the marine environment has lagged behind that of the land. The Government has recently completed a review of marine nature conservation and has announced its intention to publish a marine bill to better manage and protect the marine environment. This POSTnote examines the current state of knowledge about UK marine wildlife, the methods available for its conservation, and issues surrounding effective conservation.
232-UK health impacts of climate change ( PDF 135 KB)
Four page POSTnote, November 2004
How we respond to climate change, both globally and in the UK, is an issue of public concern. To date, the main focus has been on the likely environmental and economic outcomes. However, there is growing recognition that there may be significant impacts from climate change on human health. This POSTnote outlines the potential impacts of climate change on health in the UK and examines the options open to public policy makers.
230-The future of UK gas supplies ( PDF 158 KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2004
The UK's gas reserves are declining. Government and industry analysts estimate that by around 2006 the UK will no longer be self-sufficient in gas production and will revert to being a net gas importer. Gas is the largest proportion of the UK's primary energy supply, and gas-fired power plants are the main method of power generation. The UK will increasingly depend on gas imported from Europe and further afield. This POSTnote examines the UK's options for dealing with a diminishing domestic gas supply and for ensuring future gas security.
229-EU chemicals policy ( PDF 136 KB)
Four page POSTnote, September 2004
New chemicals marketed in the EU have to undergo stringent safety assessments to evaluate their potential health and environmental impacts. The majority of chemicals that have been on the market for some time ("existing chemicals") have not undergone such strict assessments. New proposals (REACH - Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of CHemicals) currently before the European Parliament are designed to eliminate the differences between existing and new chemicals, and to address concerns over the potential effects of chemical exposure on human health and the environment. This briefing describes the proposals and examines issues such as the likely impact of REACH on competitiveness, world trade and animal welfare.
223-Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) ( PDF 122 KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2004
SEA is the subject of new legislation coming into force on 20 July 2004, implementing a European Directive. It requires environmental effects to be taken into account by authorities during the preparation of plans and programmes in the fields of land-use, transport, waste and water management, energy, and a range of other sectors. The Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM) laid UK Regulations before Parliament on 29 June. This briefing outlines the aims, scope and requirements of the legislation, and the implications for plan- and programme-makers and other parties.
213-Climate change and business ( PDF 124 KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 2004
The Government's Climate Change Programme (CCP) is aimed at reducing UK emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) by a fifth, against 1990 levels, by 2010. Several of the measures included in the programme specifically target emissions from business. This briefing outlines those elements of the CCP relevant to business and their impact on reducing CO2 emissions. It also discusses how the business community has responded to the CCP and outlines options to make policies more effective.
212-Environmental policy and innovation ( PDF 120 KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 2004
The Government has recently published a strategy for innovation. This identified the opportunity for linking environmental policy and innovation. The development and uptake of innovative ways to reduce environmental impacts may be stimulated by modern policies, known as 'new environmental policy instruments' (NEPIs). These include the Climate Change Levy and the Landfill Tax. This briefing examines NEPIs and their role in stimulating innovation and improving the environment. It also updates POST's previous work in this area.
209 - Modern methods of house building ( PDF 121 KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2003
Last week, the Government's Barker Review argued that a UK housing shortage is having widespread economic and social consequences. Government estimates that by 2016 there will be 3 million new UK households. It recently published the Sustainable Communities Plan outlining a major new house building programme to help meet this growth. Government is encouraging modern methods of construction (MMC), which it says can achieve "a step change in the construction industry to produce the quantity and quality of housing we need". Specifically, from 2004 a quarter of new publicly funded social housing must use MMC. MMC primarily involves the manufacture of homes in factories, with potential benefits such as faster construction, fewer housing defects, and reductions in energy use and waste. This note describes the variety of MMC used by UK house builders and assesses the main costs and benefits. It then discusses issues including industry capacity and the quality of housing.
208 - The nuclear energy option in the UK ( PDF 123 KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2003
The government's recent White Paper on energy policy did not endorse a programme of new nuclear power stations at this time, but declared that "at some point in the future new nuclear build might be necessary if we are to meet our carbon targets." Thus, its policy on nuclear energy is "to keep the option open". Parliamentary interest in this topic is high. This briefing analyses some of the issues associated with keeping the option open that the government and industry might need to resolve. It does not examine whether there is a need to keep the option open nor indeed the precise means for doing this. Rather, it focuses on options for new reactors, the economics of nuclear energy, the knowledge base for nuclear technology, and issues related to waste management, licensing and security.
207 - The environmental costs of aviation ( PDF 116 KB)
Four page POSTnote, November 2003
The Government's policies for the future of UK air transport will be set out in a White Paper in late 2003. This will also put forward initial proposals for making the aviation industry and its users pay for their environmental costs. This briefing examines the basis for the Government's cost estimates and how these could be used in policy decisions related to airport expansion and environmental regulation for aviation.
Also see report E-11 for a longer analysis of valuing the global warming impacts of aviation.
203 - Security of electricity supplies ( PDF 128 KB)
Four page POSTnote, September 2003
Modern societies are vulnerable to unreliable electricity supplies. The recent power failures in London, storm damage to UK electricity networks in 2002, as well as widespread blackouts in North America, highlight the impact of disruptions to electricity networks. Electricity generation shortages are another potential threat to electricity supplies. This briefing outlines the main issues linked to maintaining electricity supplies. It also reviews the role of government in ensuring the security of supply in electricity markets.
201 - Chewing Gum Litter ( PDF 225 KB)
Two page POSTnote, September 2003
Discarded chewing gum sticks firmly to pavements. It does not degrade over time and is difficult to remove. The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) recently put forward proposals to tackle this issue. These included encouraging manufacturers to take responsibility for helping to reduce chewing gum litter and clarifying legislation so that chewing gum would be treated in the same way as other litter. This briefing considers the options for preventing and for cleaning up chewing gum litter.
197 - Aircraft noise ( PDF 143 KB)
Four page POSTnote, June 2003
For many living around airports, noise is the most evident environmental impact of aviation. This briefing examines the sources of noise from airports, the effects of noise on people and the implications of the Government’s forecasts for the growth in aviation. Potential technical and policy options to reduce aircraft noise are outlined. A more detailed POST report is also available covering this and other environmental issues associated with aviation
195 - Aviation and the environment ( PDF 135 KB)
Four page POST report summary, April 2003
Full report (600 KB) ( PDF 589 KB)
Seventy six page POST report, April 2003
Air travel is forecast to grow, possibly trebling by 2030. The Government is consulting on whether and where this demand should be met, and a White Paper is due at the end of 2003. Growth in air travel affects the environment locally through noise, air pollution, and damage to wildlife, heritage and landscapes. More widely, emissions from aircraft engines contribute to global warming. This POST report considers the environmental effects of civil aviation and the options available to mitigate these effects.
192 - Nuclear Fusion ( PDF 130 KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 2003
There is growing interest in using nuclear fusion for generating electricity in the future. The fuel it would use is abundant and it produces no greenhouse gases. International negotiations are under way to construct the next major experimental fusion reactor (ITER) and the US has recently decided to re-enter these discussions. Questions remain over issues such as the economic viability and environmental impact of fusion power and the timescales for its commercialisation. This note discusses such issues and updates POST’s previous briefings on fusion research.
191 - Access to Energy in Developing Countries ( PDF 106 KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2002
Increasing access to energy in developing countries has proved to be a challenging and contentious issue within the international development community. Agencies are now realising the limitations of past energy-related interventions and undertaking a widespread review of policy in this area. In the UK, the Department for International Development (DFID) is currently embarking on a new approach. This briefing outlines the current scale of energy needs in developing countries, the issues associated with meeting these needs and the role of the UK in adopting a new perspective.
190 - Access to Sanitation in Developing Countries ( PDF 115 KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2002
In 2000, 40% of the world's population lacked access to basic sanitation. At the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg in the summer of 2002, the international community agreed to a target to halve the proportion of people who lack access to basic sanitation by 2015. This briefing outlines the scale of the challenge and reasons for improving access to sanitation. It also examines the technical, economic, social, and institutional issues that will be faced in delivering the target, and the UK's contribution towards that end.
188 - Air Quality in the UK ( PDF 149 KB)
Four page POSTnote, November 2002
Air quality in the UK has improved significantly since the time of the Great Smog in London 50 years ago. This POSTnote explores the major steps contributing to that process, examines current air quality issues, mainly related to traffic emissions, and considers trends, developments in policy and future research requirements in air quality.
187 - Intelligent Transport ( PDF 115 KB)
Four page POSTnote, November 2002
Intelligent transport systems (ITS) combine information technology and communications for transport applications. By allowing communication to, from and between vehicles, ITS could address a number of the aims of the Government's integrated transport policy, such as reducing congestion and accident rates and improving network management. ITS can also enable electronic fee collection in road charging schemes. This briefing describes current and future applications of ITS in road transport. It goes on to discuss questions such as financing, management and safety which need attention if such schemes are to be implemented successfully.
186 - Prospects for a Hydrogen Economy ( PDF 249 KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2002
There is increasing interest in the use of hydrogen as the basis for an energy system with low carbon dioxide emissions. Hydrogen could be used as a fuel for road transport, distributed heat and power generation, and for energy storage. This has led to discussion of a 'hydrogen economy' - widespread and diverse production and use of hydrogen. This briefing outlines the basis of interest in hydrogen and examines technologies for its production, handling and use. Policy issues surrounding technology and market development of hydrogen are also considered.
178 - Access to water in developing countries ( PDF 250 KB)
Four page POSTnote, May 2002
Sufficient clean water is essential to everyone's wellbeing. Yet nearly 20% of the world's population does not have ready access to drinking water and 40% lack sanitation facilities. The vast majority of these people are in developing countries and the United Nations has identified water use as a priority for international aid. Access to water is now recognised as a key issue in development and therefore will be high on the agenda in August 2002, when world leaders meet in Johannesburg to address key issues affecting 'sustainable development'. This briefing outlines the technological, social, economic and political issues influencing sustainable water use and examines the UK's role in helping to increase developing countries' capacity in this area.
177 - Floodforum.net - on online discussion ( PDF 245 KB)
Four page POSTnote, April 2002
During January and February 2002, POST commissioned an online discussion ( floodforum.net) examining the causes, consequences and communication of flooding. Flooding in the UK puts at risk up to five million people and causes damage estimated at around £800 million each year. A number of possible causes of flooding are suggested: building on floodplains, alterations to river channels, changes in rainfall patterns and changes in agricultural and land management practice. Climate change is also predicted to increase flooding risk. This briefing updates a previous note ( Managing Flooding POSTnote 169, December 2001 ( PDF 477 KB)) by summarising the outcome floodforum.net, and outlines the Government's current consultation on the arrangements for funding flood and coastal defence.
A longer summary (38 pages) of the floodforum.net discussion is also available as POST Report E-6 ( PDF 140 KB) and a full content analysis as POST Report E-7 ( PDF 205 KB).
To consolidate our work in the area of flooding, POST convened a seminar in the House of Commons on 29 April 2002. Over 120 people participated and speakers included Elliot Morley MP, Minister for Flooding; Dr Jim Haywood, Head of the Environment Agency's National Flood Warning Centre; Mr Peter Barnett, Chairman of the National Flood Forum, Dr Nigel Arnell, from the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, and Professor Edmund Penning-Rowsell, Director of the Flood Hazard Research Centre at the University of Middlesex.
176 - Ratifying Kyoto ( PDF 237 KB)
Two page POSTnote, April 2002
The UK will shortly ratify the Kyoto Protocol for tackling climate change. This is part of a co-ordinated EU ratification programme agreed by EU environment ministers in March 2002. Before the EU can formally ratify the Protocol, each Member State must receive clearance from its national parliament. To inform this process in the UK, this briefing outlines: the Kyoto Protocol and the current UK/EU view; positions of other developed countries (particularly the USA, Australia, Russia and Japan); and the situation in developing countries.
173 - Appraising major infrastructure projects ( PDF 265 KB)
Four page POSTnote, February 2002
The Government wishes to speed the planning of major infrastructure projects (MIPs) to minimise what it sees as unnecessary delays. As part of a wider package, it is consulting on new procedures that would enable Parliament to make a ‘Decision in Principle’ on whether a MIP should go forward to detailed scrutiny on local issues at a planning inquiry. The Government intends that Parliament is able to "fully consider" a scheme, ensuring that there is "the opportunity for extensive public involvement". The House of Commons Procedure Committee and the Transport, Local Government and the Regions Select Committee are examining the proposals. This briefing focuses on what is meant by MIPs, and how they can be appraised.
A seminar to discuss these issues was held on 23 May 2002. A summary note of the seminar can be found here ( PDF 75 KB).
169 - Managing Flooding ( PDF 477 KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2001
Up to 5 million people in the UK are at risk from river and coastal flooding. Annual average damage is estimated at around £800million. Recent severe flooding has led to suggestions that it is becoming more common and causing greater damage. While research continues on whether this trend is real, a number of possible causes are suggested: building on floodplains, alterations to river channels, changes in rainfall patterns and changes in agricultural and land management practice. Climate change is also predicted to increase flooding risk. This briefing outlines the policy and practice of managing river flooding, and examines how the response might be improved.
164 - Renewable Energy ( PDF 241 KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2001
Generating electricity from renewable energy sources is a key part of the Government's strategy to tackle climate change and to develop business opportunities. It has set a target for 10% of all electricity to be generated from renewable sources by 2010. A Renewables Obligation (RO) Order, requiring electricity supply companies to sell electricity from renewable sources, will shortly be introduced into Parliament . Concerns have been expressed, however, that the target may not be met because of potential difficulties with the policy and its role in the wider electricity market. This briefing outlines the main renewable energy sources, the barriers to uptake, and the policies to stimulate their deployment. It specifically aims to help Parliamentarians in their consideration of the RO Order 2001. Also, this briefing accompanies a separate briefing on electricity networks ( POSTnote 163 ( PDF 278 KB)).
163 - UK Electricity Networks ( PDF 278 KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2001
The Government wishes to increase the contribution of renewable electricity and Combined Heat and Power (CHP) to UK energy supplies. Much of this technology will be small-scale and situated close to where its output is used. The electricity output may be less predictable than from sources such as gas, coal-fired or nuclear power stations. The configuration, operation and regulation of current national electricity networks may therefore need modification. This briefing explores the regulatory, economic and technical implications arising. It accompanies a related but separate briefing on renewable energy ( POSTnote 164 ( PDF 241 KB)).
Also see report E-5 ( PDF 1.94 MB) for a longer analysis of UK Electricity Networks.
161 - Climate Change Policy Update ( PDF 147 KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2001
The Kyoto Protocol aims to reduce emissions of ‘greenhouse gases’, the main sources of human-induced climate change. International negotiations resume in Bonn on 19th July 2001 to define the rules for implementing the Protocol. However, recent statements from the US Administration have heightened doubts over the prospects for agreement at Bonn. This briefing summarises the latest scientific assessment of climate change, the issues to be resolved in Bonn, and the implications for future policy.
158 - Reducing Radon Risks in the Home ( PDF 154 KB)
Four page POSTnote, June 2001
Radon is a naturally occurring radioactive gas found in rocks and soils that can cause lung cancer. Around 100,000 homes across the country are thought to be at particular risk. Previous efforts to encourage householders to take action to reduce their exposure have met with limited success, but the Government has recently launched a new programme in England in partnership with 32 local authorities to address the problem. This briefing outlines where radon comes from, its hazards, and ways to reduce its risks.
156 - Managing Human Error ( PDF 184 KB)
Eight page POSTnote, June 2001
The recent (June 2001) publication of the Cullen Report into the Paddington rail crash has once more focused media and public attention on large-scale accidents. Such incidents are often followed by calls for blame to be allocated to individuals at the 'sharp end' of the industry in question. In addition, small-scale workplace accidents account for over 200 deaths per year and over 180,000 injuries. This briefing looks at human factors which are liable to cause such errors, examines how their effects can be minimised and analyses the implications for health and safety policy.
151 - The Autumn 2000 Rains and Floods ( PDF 32 KB)
Two page POSTnote, December 2000
Autumn 2000 was the wettest since records began in 1766. Most parts of the UK experienced the heaviest rainfall and most extreme floods for many years. This has raised concerns over whether such events are becoming more common and whether this can be attributed to climate change. This note describes the rainfall over the UK in Autumn 2000, outlines evidence regarding trends in such extreme events, and explores possible links with climate change.
149 - Incineration of Household Waste ( PDF 47 KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2000
Recent national waste strategies have led to the suggestion that the numbers of waste incinerators may increase significantly. This raises concerns over the health effects of pollution and the role of incineration in waste management.
147 - Implementing the Kyoto Climate Change Agreement ( PDF 45 KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2000
At the so-called ‘COP6’ meeting that begins in The Hague on 13th November 2000, it is intended to reach agreement on setting the global rules for implementing the 1997 ‘Kyoto Protocol’ to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This briefing outlines the Kyoto Protocol ‘Mechanisms’, and discusses key issues to be raised at the meeting.
146 - GM Farm Trials ( PDF 86 KB)
Four page POSTnote, September 2000
Concerns that growing genetically modified (GM) crops on a commercial scale in the UK may have adverse effects on the environment prompted the government to launch farm-scale evaluations (FSEs) in spring 1999. These will assess the abundance and diversity of wildlife (biodiversity) in fields of GM crops compared to fields of conventional crops. But the FSEs have been the target of a high profile campaign to destroy the crops. This note details recent developments in the FSEs and examines the issues that arise.
144 - Biodiversity and Conservation ( PDF 75 KB)
Eight page POSTnote, July 2000
The passage of the Countryside and Rights of Way (CROW) Bill, and two recent select committee inquiries have focussed parliamentary interest on protecting wildlife. Concerns have been raised over the role that science plays in defining the goals of nature conservation. This briefing note examines the basis for nature conservation and the role and application of science, and discusses the issues raised.
138 - Science in the Media: Press Coverage of GM Food - summary ( PDF 31 KB)
Two page POST report summary, May 2000
Full report ( PDF 302 KB)
Fifty-two page POST report, May 2000
Recent years have seen intense media interest in genetically modified (GM) foods. POST and the House of Lords Science and Technology Select Committee commissioned research to investigate media coverage of GM foods over the first six months of 1999. This report details the findings of this research and considers the conclusions drawn.
137 - Mixed Oxide Nuclear Fuel (MOX) ( PDF 87 KB)
Eight page POSTnote, April 2000
MOX is a mixture of uranium and plutonium oxides used in some overseas nuclear power stations. British Nuclear Fuels plc (BNFL) produced MOX for export on a small scale at Sellafield. A full-scale plant has been built but is awaiting government approval for operation. Recent events surrounding the falsification of data about MOX fuel pellets by BNFL workers raised international concerns and may have implications for the approval of the new plant. This POST Note gives an overview of how MOX is made and used, and looks at some of the issues raised.
136 - Cleaning Up: Stimulating innovation in environmental technology - summary ( PDF 90 KB)
Four page POST Report Summary, April 2000
Full report ( PDF 391 KB)
Eighty-three page POST report, April 2000
Innovation is the key to success in many areas of business, not least in improving environmental performance. Opportunities arise to develop domestic and global markets for industrial processes and consumer products based on meeting customer needs at the same time as improving environmental performance. POST has reviewed industry’s responses to environmental pressures and what drives innovation.
135 - Water Efficiency in the Home ( PDF 113 KB)
Four page POSTnote, April 2000
Although the UK has not faced a serious drought since 1995, the availability of water resources is still attracting attention. Increasing household numbers and changes in lifestyles are raising demand, especially in some parts of the country. While this could be tackled by providing new supplies, it is Government policy that demand should be managed. One key aspect of this is encouraging the efficient use of water in the home. This briefing note examines the techniques for increasing domestic water efficiency and discusses the issues raised.
129 - GM Threshold for non-GM Foods ( PDF 98 KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 1999
In October 1999, the European Commission (EC) published proposals on de-minimis thresholds for labeling of genetically modified (GM) foods. These recognise that even where manufacturers attempt to exclude GM ingredients from their products some ‘accidental contamination’ may occur. The new proposal is to require labeling only where the GM content of an ingredient obtained from non-GM sources exceeds a 1 per cent. threshold. This briefing note reviews the background to the Commission’s proposed threshold and examines the issues that arise
128 - Marine Science and Technology ( PDF 213 KB)
20 page POST Report, July 1999
1998, the International Year of the Oceans, helped to focus increasing attention on the importance of a very broad range of marine topics. These include trade, fisheries, flood protection and coastal defence, energy resources, transport, species and habitat conservation, as well as scientific research. This Report outlines the Marine Science and Technology that underpins such areas, and examines the issues that arise.
125 - Non-Food Crops ( PDF 50 KB)
Eight page POSTnote, March 1999
This POSTnote updates the 1995 POST report Alternatives in Agriculture. It was prepared as background briefing for the current House of Lords Science and Technology Committee inquiry into the same subject which covers fuels, chemical feedstocks, crops for general industrial purposes, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals (but not timber, tobacco or animal feeds). Recent developments in these fields are examined, and the economic, agricultural and international policy implications discussed.
122 - Organophosphates ( PDF 131 KB)
Eight page POSTnote, December 1998
Recent years have seen concerns intensify over the potential adverse effects of organophosphate pesticides on people (notably sheep farmers) exposed to low doses over long periods of time. This report summarises the current state of research in this area and examines the issues that arise.
121 - Living in the Greenhouse ( PDF 34 KB)
Four page report summary, December 1998
This note is a summary of a longer report (59pp) prepared by POST, which reviews the likely effects of climate change in the UK, and considers ways in which adaptations to change could be developed.
120 - Nuclear Fusion Update ( PDF 44 KB)
Four page POSTnote, November 1998
POSTnote 40 (1993) examined international progress towards power from nuclear fusion and its future prospects. Recent years have seen technical developments but also continued debate and uncertainty over whether fusion will ever be economic as an energy source. This briefing describes recent developments in this area, looks at how the prospects for future energy supply from fusion have changed and examines the issues that arise.
117 - A Brown and Pleasant Land ( PDF 742 KB)
Four page report summary, July 1998
This note is a summary of a longer (66 page) report prepared by POST, which reviews the Government’s household projections and the limited data on the availability of brownfield sites, and examines the process of redeveloping such sites for housing.
116 - A Clean Licence? Graduated Vehicle Excise Duty ( PDF 83 KB)
Eight page POSTnote, June 1998
The March 1998 Budget included proposals for an environmentally-graduated Vehicle Excise Duty (VED) for cars, with the least-polluting cars attracting the lowest annual charge. This proposal fits with the stated aims of successive governments to use ‘market mechanisms’ to achieve environmental goals. This briefing considers graduated VED against other options to achieve these aims.
115 - Genetically Modified Foods ( PDF 33 KB)
Four page report summary, May 1998
POST has analysed recent developments in GM foods. This note summarises the report and the issues of interest to parliamentarians.
112 - Electronic Road Charging ( PDF 47 KB)
Four page POSTnote, March 1998
Charging drivers for road use could raise revenues for transport projects and reduce congestion and improve the environment in urban areas. The results of initial trials of both the technology and driver behaviour are becoming available, but many issues remain unresolved. The Transport White Paper in May 1998 will be the opportunity for Government to clarify its view on the future role seen for such technologies.
109 - Health Risks and Mobile Phones ( PDF 45 KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 1998
The rising market for mobile phones has been accompanied by concerns over their safety, especially that the radio frequencies used to transmit signals may cause harm (most notably cancer). Such concerns relate both to the siting of the transmitter ‘base’ stations and the use of hand-held receivers. This briefing note looks at the evidence behind such concerns, and the policy issues that arise.
108 - Hormone Mimicking Chemicals ( PDF 71 KB)
Eight page report, January 1998
Some synthetic and natural chemicals can mimic natural hormones, and there are questions whether there are sufficient amounts of such chemicals in the diet or the environment to cause adverse effects on human health (eg. on sperm counts) or to affect wildlife. This report looks at the scientific evidence on this subject and the policy issues arising.
106 - Radioactive Waste - Where Next? ( PDF 50 KB)
Four page report summary, November 1997
After the refusal of planning permission for a key stage towards a deep radioactive waste repository, the £500 million programme by Nirex for the UK’s waste is back to square one. This report explores the origins of radioactive waste, how it is regulated, the management and disposal options, and most critically, how such an important national priority went so badly wrong. The report also asks where do we go from here and reaches some uncomfortable conclusions over the prospect of making progress in the future.
102 - Ozone Layer Depletion and Health ( PDF 50 KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 1997
This note discusses the latest evidence on ozone depletion and UVR levels in the UK, their health implications and related issues.
100 - Global Warming: Meeting New Targets ( PDF 57 KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 1997
This note examines the implications of the new Government’s target to cut the UK’s CO2 emissions by 20 per cent. by the Year 2010. Issues arising for the Kyoto Climate Conference in December 1997 are discussed, as well as for UK policies in areas such as energy, transport and industry.
91 - Sustainable Development - Theory and Practice ( PDF 49 KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 1997
The six members of the European Parliamentary Technology Association held a meeting recently to compare experience at looking at issues of sustainability. This note summarises some of the findings which suggest that real sustainability will require basic changes in the way we run our affairs.
90 - Tunnel Vision - the future role of tunnels in transport infrastructure ( PDF 48 KB)
Four page POST report summary, January 1997
This report asks why tunnels are not used more in sensitive schemes such as Twyford Down, examines the contribution of technological advances to cost reduction, and how the advantages of tunnels are effectively left out of the cost-benefit equation.
84 - Orimulsion and Power Stations ( PDF 97 KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 1996
Fuels derived from bitumen (eg. orimulsion) are under consideration for expanded use in UK power stationsin particular in National Power's moth-balled station near Pembroke. Concerns have been raised in Parliament and elsewhere over the potential air pollution from such fuels, and the potential environmental effects of any orimulsion spill in transit through Milford Haven. This note looks at the environmental implications of fuels such as orimulsion, and the issues raised.
82 - Fine Particles and their Effects on Health ( PDF 122 KB)
12 page POST report, June 1996
This report looks at the increasing evidence of a statistical link between the levels of particulate air pollution and mortality through respiratory and coronary disease. The report looks at the sources, the levels, and the epidemiology of the link and also what might be done to reduce mortality through this route.
81 - Safety in Numbers? - Risk Assessment in Environment Protection ( PDF 70 KB)
Four page POST report summary, June 1996
Risk assessment is increasingly hitting the headlines as new 'threats' to human health (ranging from BSE to risks from contraceptive pills) are reported in the media. This report looks at the science of risk assessment, the importance of public perception, and how different agencies in the UK Government are applying risk assessmentnot always consistently. The UK has also just set up the Environment Agency, bringing together different independent units with regulatory authorities for water, air, etc., and the report looks at how easy it is going to be to harmonise their respective approaches to risk assessment.
75 - The Sea Empress Oil Spill ( PDF 53 KB)
Four page POSTnote, February 1996
This note looks at the initial evidence on the consequences of the Sea Empress spill at Milford Haven in February, where 70,000 tons of North Sea crude oil were spilt into the outer estuary, threatening both inshore marine life and offshore sea birds and sea mammals.
71 - Dealing with Drought - Update ( PDF 132 KB)
12 page report, December 1995
This updates the earlier POST report on drought issues by looking at current trends in leakage and demand management.
70 - Transport - Some Issues in Sustainability ( PDF 58 KB)
Four page POST report summary, November 1995
This analyses the environmental and other impacts of transport and how these mesh with a sustainable future.
65 - Oil Rig Disposal ( PDF 55 KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 1995
Following the Brent Spar episode, this briefing note examines how oil installations can be disposed of and their environmental effects, and reviews the specific case of Brent Spar.
61 - Global Warming - the State of the Science ( PDF 70 KB)
Four page POSTnote, May 1995
This briefing note examines recent scientific findings on global warming and climate change that contribute to the growing acceptance that human activities are warming the planet.